The relationship between social connections and psychological distress during the COVID-19 pandemic
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Publicado
Jan 16, 2022
Resumen
During the years 2020 and 2021, in Puerto Rico and worldwide, social distancing was used as a public health precautionary measure to prevent the spread of the COVID-19. Literature suggests that social distancing could cause social isolation, leading to psychological distress. The purpose of this study was to identify protective factors against psychological distress by evaluating the variables of social connections, positive experiences, and age. The sample consisted of 227 participants between the ages of 22 to 77 who lived in Puerto Rico during the pandemic. The correlation analysis suggests that when reported levels of social connections are higher, reported levels of psychological distress are lower. Specifically, social connections with family may help counteract psychological distress. These results are consistent with the cultural value of “familism,” which explains how family ties in Latino family members promote their emotional well-being and mental health. There was no significant relationship between positive experiences and psychological distress or between age and social connections. We recommend family care and support programs in order to help families manage psychological distress caused by crises such as pandemics, among others.
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Keywords
References
Achterbergh, L., Pitman, A., Birken, M., Pearce, E., Sno, H., & Johnson, S. (2020). The experience of loneliness among young people with depression: A qualitative meta-synthesis of the literature. BMC psychiatry, 20(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02818-3
American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Protective factor. APA Dictionary of Psychology. https://dictionary.apa.org/protective-factor
American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Psychological distress. APA Dictionary of Psychology. https://dictionary.apa.org/psychological-distress
Arvidsdotter, T., Marklund, B., Kylén, S., Taft, C., & Ekman, I. (2016). Understanding persons with psychological distress in primary health care. Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 30(4), 687–694. https://doi.org/10.1111/scs.12289
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497
Best, L. A., Law, M. A., Roach, S., & Wilbiks, J. M. P. (2021). The psychological impact of COVID-19 in Canada: Effects of social isolation during the initial response. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 62(1), 143–154. https://doi.org/10.1037/cap0000254
Bonati, M., Campi, R., Zanetti, M., Cartabia, M., Scarpellini, F., Clavenna, A., & Segre, G. (2021). Psychological distress among Italians during the 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) quarantine. BMC Psychiatry, 21(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-03027-8
Broche-Pérez, Y., Fernández-Castillo, E., & Luzardo, D. A. R. (2020). Consecuencias psicológicas de la cuarentena y el aislamiento social durante la pandemia de COVID-19. Revista Cubana de Salud Pública, 46, 1–14. http://www.revsaludpublica.sld.cu/index.php/spu/article/view/2488
Campos, B., Ullman, J. B., Aguilera, A., & Dunkel Schetter, C. (2014). Familism and psychological health: The intervening role of closeness and social support. Cultural diversity & ethnic minority psychology, 20(2), 191–201. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034094
Cohen, S. (2004). Social relationships and health. American psychologist, 59(8), 676–684.
Corona, K., Campos, B., & Chen, C. (2017). Familism is associated with psychological well-being and physical health: Main effects and stress-buffering effects. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 39(1), 46–65. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739986316671297
Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16(3), 297–334. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02310555
Drapeau, A., Marchand, A., & Beaulieu-Prévost, D. (2012). Epidemiology of psychological distress. In L. L’Abate (Ed.), Mental illnesses - understanding, prediction, and control (pp. 105–134). InTech. https://library2.um.edu.mo/ebooks/b28350893.pdf
Every-Palmer, S., Jenkins, M., Gendall, P., Hoek, J., Beaglehole, B., Bell, C., Williman, J.,Rapsey, C., & Stanley, J. (2020). Psychological distress, anxiety, family violence, suicidality, and wellbeing in New Zealand during the COVID-19 lockdown: A cross-sectional study. PLoS ONE, 15(11), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0241658
Gómez-Salgado, J., Andrés-Villas, M., Domínguez-Salas, S., Díaz-Milanés, D., & Ruiz-Frutos, C. (2020). Related health factors of psychological distress during the COVID-19 pandemic in Spain. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(11), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17113947
Harrington, K., & Sliwinski, M. J. (2020, August 7). How the loneliness of social isolation can affect older adults’ brains. Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). https://www.pbs.org/newshour/health/how-the-loneliness-of-social-isolation-can-affect-older-adults-brains
Hawryluck, L., Gold, W. L., Robinson, S., Pogorski, S., Galea, S., & Styra, R. (2004). SARS control and psychological effects of quarantine, Toronto, Canada. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 10(7), 1206–1212. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1007.030703
Hayes, A. F. (2018). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
Hernández-Sampieri, R. (2014). Metodología de la investigación (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T. B., Baker, M., Harris, T., & Stephenson, D. (2015). Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for mortality: A meta-analytic review. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(2), 227–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691614568352
Hwang, T., Rabheru, K., Peisah, C., Reichman, W., & Ikeda, M. (2020). Loneliness and social isolation during the COVID-19 pandemic. International Psychogeriatrics, 32(10), 1217–1220. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610220000988
Khatiwada, J., Muzembo, B. A., Wada, K., & Ikeda, S. (2021). The effect of perceived social support on psychological distress and life satisfaction among Nepalese migrants in Japan. PLoS ONE, 16(2), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0246271
Levula, A., Harré, M., & Wilson, A. (2017). Social network factors as mediators of mental health and psychological distress. The International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 63(3), 235–243. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764017695575
Li, H. O. Y., & Huynh, D. (2020). Long-term social distancing during COVID-19: A social isolation crisis among seniors? Canadian Medical Association Journal, 192(21), E588. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.75428
Losada, A., Marquez-Gonzalez, M., Knight, B. G., Yanguas, J., Sayegh, P., & Romero-Moreno, R. (2010). Psychosocial factors and caregivers’ distress: Effects of familism and dysfunctional thoughts. Aging & Mental Health, 14(2), 193–202. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607860903167838
Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(1943), 370– 396. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054346
Memon, M. A., Cheah, J. H., Ramayah, T., Ting, H., Chuah, F., & Cham, T. H. (2019).Moderation analysis: issues and guidelines. Journal of Applied Structural Equation Modeling, 3(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.47263/JASEM.3(1)01
Mirowsky, J., & Ross, C. E. (2002). Measurement for a human science. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 43(2),152–170. https://doi.org/10.2307/3090194
Nair, T., & Appu, A. V. (2021). Social connectedness and psychological distress of elders during Covid-19. Indian Journal of Gerontology, 35(2), 200–212. http://www.gerontologyindia.com/pdf/vol35-2.pdf
National Institute of Mental Health. (2016). Older adults and depression: Learn the signs and find treatment. https://infocenter.nimh.nih.gov/pubstatic/19-MH-8080/19-MH-8080.pdf
National Institute of Ageing. (2019). Social isolation and loneliness in older people pose health risks. https://www.nia.nih.gov/news/social-isolation-loneliness-older-people-pose-health-risks
Nava-Quiroz, C. N., Bezies-Álvarez, R., & Vega-Valero, C. Z. (2014). Adaptación y validación de la escala de percepción de apoyo social de Vaux. Liberabit, 21(1), 49–58.
Nicasio, A. V., Cassisi, J. E., Negy, C., & Jentsch, F. (2019). Attitude–behavior discrepancy in familism and its relation to symptoms of depression among Latinos. Journal of Latinx Psychology, 7(2), 154–170. https://doi.org/10.1037/lat0000113
Nitschke, J. P., Forbes, P. A. G., Ali, N., Cutler, J., Apps, M. A. J., Lockwood, P. L., & Lamm, C. (2021). Resilience during uncertainty? Greater social connectedness during COVID‐19 lockdown is associated with reduced distress and fatigue. British Journal of Health Psychology, 26(2), 553–569. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12485
Pérez-Pedrogo, C., Francia-Martínez, M., & Martínez-Taboas, A. (2020). COVID-19 in Puerto Rico: Preliminary observations on social distancing and societal response toward a novel health stressor. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 12(5), 515–517. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000664
Ramírez-Ortiza, J., Castro-Quintero, D., Lerma-Córdoba, C., Yela-Ceballosa, F., & Escobar-Córdoba, F. (2020). Mental health consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic associated with social isolation. Colombian Journal of Anesthesiology, 48(4), 1–7.
https://doi.org/10.5554/22562087.e930
Reynolds, D. L., Garay, J. R., Deamond, S. L., Moran, M. K., Gold, W., & Styra, R. (2008). Understanding, compliance and psychological impact of the SARS quarantine experience. Epidemiology & Infection, 136(7), 997–1007. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0950268807009156
Ridner S. H. (2004). Psychological distress: Concept analysis. Journal of advanced Nursing, 45(5), 536–545. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2648.2003.02938.x
Sabogal, F., Marín, G., Otero-Sabogal, R., Marín, B. V., & Perez-Stable, E. J. (1987). Hispanic familism and acculturation: What changes and what doesn't? Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 9(4), 397–412. https://doi.org/10.1177/07399863870094003
Sandín, B., Valiente, R. M., García-Escalera, J., & Chorot, P. (2020). Impacto psicológico de la pandemia de COVID-19: Efectos negativos y positivos en población española asociados al periodo de confinamiento nacional. Revista de Psicopatología y Psicología Clínica, 25(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.5944/rppc.27569
Seppala, E., Rossomando, T., & Doty, J. R. (2013). Social connection and compassion: Important predictors of health and well-being. Social Research, 80(2), 53–78.
Shankar, A., McMunn, A., Banks, J., & Steptoe, A. (2011). Loneliness, social isolation, and behavioral and biological health indicators in older adults. Health psychology, 30(4), 377–385. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022826
Shankar, A., Bjorn-Rafnsson, S., & Steptoe, A. (2015). Longitudinal associations between social connections and subjective wellbeing in the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing. Psychology & Health, 30(6), 686–698. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2014.979823
Steptoe, A., Shankar, A., Demakakos, P., & Wardle, J. (2013). Social isolation, loneliness, and all-cause mortality in older men and women. PNAS, 110(15), 5797–5801. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1219686110
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2019). Risk and Protective Factors. https://www.samhsa.gov/sites/default/files/20190718-samhsa-risk-protective-factors.pdf
UHN Cardiovascular Prevention & Rehabilitation Program at the Toronto Rehabilitation Institute. (n.d.). Psychological Distress. Health e-University. https://www.healtheuniversity.ca/EN/CardiacCollege/Wellbeing/Stress_And_Sense_Of Control/Pages/psychological-distress.aspx
Wang, Y., Kala, M. P., & Jafar, T. H. (2020). Factors associated with psychological distress during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic on the predominantly general population: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE, 15(12), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0244630
World Health Organization. (2011). Social determinants of health. https://www.who.int/health-topics/social-determinants-of-health#tab=tab_1
World Health Organization. (2017a, February 3). Determinants of health. https://www.who.int/news-room/q-a-detail/determinants-of-health
World Health Organization. (2017b). Mental health of older adults. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs381/en/
World Health Organization. (2020). Coronavirus. https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus#tab=tab_1
Vaux, A., Phillips, J., Holly, L., Thomson, B., Williams, D., & Stewart, D. (1986). The social support appraisals (SS-A) scale: Studies of reliability and validity. American Journal of Community Psychology, 14(2), 195-218. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00911821
Zavaleta, D., Samuel, K., & Mills, C. T. (2017). Measures of social isolation. Social Indicators Research. 131(1), 367–391. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-016-1252-2
American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Protective factor. APA Dictionary of Psychology. https://dictionary.apa.org/protective-factor
American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Psychological distress. APA Dictionary of Psychology. https://dictionary.apa.org/psychological-distress
Arvidsdotter, T., Marklund, B., Kylén, S., Taft, C., & Ekman, I. (2016). Understanding persons with psychological distress in primary health care. Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 30(4), 687–694. https://doi.org/10.1111/scs.12289
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497
Best, L. A., Law, M. A., Roach, S., & Wilbiks, J. M. P. (2021). The psychological impact of COVID-19 in Canada: Effects of social isolation during the initial response. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 62(1), 143–154. https://doi.org/10.1037/cap0000254
Bonati, M., Campi, R., Zanetti, M., Cartabia, M., Scarpellini, F., Clavenna, A., & Segre, G. (2021). Psychological distress among Italians during the 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) quarantine. BMC Psychiatry, 21(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-03027-8
Broche-Pérez, Y., Fernández-Castillo, E., & Luzardo, D. A. R. (2020). Consecuencias psicológicas de la cuarentena y el aislamiento social durante la pandemia de COVID-19. Revista Cubana de Salud Pública, 46, 1–14. http://www.revsaludpublica.sld.cu/index.php/spu/article/view/2488
Campos, B., Ullman, J. B., Aguilera, A., & Dunkel Schetter, C. (2014). Familism and psychological health: The intervening role of closeness and social support. Cultural diversity & ethnic minority psychology, 20(2), 191–201. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034094
Cohen, S. (2004). Social relationships and health. American psychologist, 59(8), 676–684.
Corona, K., Campos, B., & Chen, C. (2017). Familism is associated with psychological well-being and physical health: Main effects and stress-buffering effects. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 39(1), 46–65. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739986316671297
Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16(3), 297–334. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02310555
Drapeau, A., Marchand, A., & Beaulieu-Prévost, D. (2012). Epidemiology of psychological distress. In L. L’Abate (Ed.), Mental illnesses - understanding, prediction, and control (pp. 105–134). InTech. https://library2.um.edu.mo/ebooks/b28350893.pdf
Every-Palmer, S., Jenkins, M., Gendall, P., Hoek, J., Beaglehole, B., Bell, C., Williman, J.,Rapsey, C., & Stanley, J. (2020). Psychological distress, anxiety, family violence, suicidality, and wellbeing in New Zealand during the COVID-19 lockdown: A cross-sectional study. PLoS ONE, 15(11), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0241658
Gómez-Salgado, J., Andrés-Villas, M., Domínguez-Salas, S., Díaz-Milanés, D., & Ruiz-Frutos, C. (2020). Related health factors of psychological distress during the COVID-19 pandemic in Spain. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(11), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17113947
Harrington, K., & Sliwinski, M. J. (2020, August 7). How the loneliness of social isolation can affect older adults’ brains. Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). https://www.pbs.org/newshour/health/how-the-loneliness-of-social-isolation-can-affect-older-adults-brains
Hawryluck, L., Gold, W. L., Robinson, S., Pogorski, S., Galea, S., & Styra, R. (2004). SARS control and psychological effects of quarantine, Toronto, Canada. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 10(7), 1206–1212. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1007.030703
Hayes, A. F. (2018). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
Hernández-Sampieri, R. (2014). Metodología de la investigación (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T. B., Baker, M., Harris, T., & Stephenson, D. (2015). Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for mortality: A meta-analytic review. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(2), 227–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691614568352
Hwang, T., Rabheru, K., Peisah, C., Reichman, W., & Ikeda, M. (2020). Loneliness and social isolation during the COVID-19 pandemic. International Psychogeriatrics, 32(10), 1217–1220. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610220000988
Khatiwada, J., Muzembo, B. A., Wada, K., & Ikeda, S. (2021). The effect of perceived social support on psychological distress and life satisfaction among Nepalese migrants in Japan. PLoS ONE, 16(2), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0246271
Levula, A., Harré, M., & Wilson, A. (2017). Social network factors as mediators of mental health and psychological distress. The International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 63(3), 235–243. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764017695575
Li, H. O. Y., & Huynh, D. (2020). Long-term social distancing during COVID-19: A social isolation crisis among seniors? Canadian Medical Association Journal, 192(21), E588. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.75428
Losada, A., Marquez-Gonzalez, M., Knight, B. G., Yanguas, J., Sayegh, P., & Romero-Moreno, R. (2010). Psychosocial factors and caregivers’ distress: Effects of familism and dysfunctional thoughts. Aging & Mental Health, 14(2), 193–202. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607860903167838
Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(1943), 370– 396. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054346
Memon, M. A., Cheah, J. H., Ramayah, T., Ting, H., Chuah, F., & Cham, T. H. (2019).Moderation analysis: issues and guidelines. Journal of Applied Structural Equation Modeling, 3(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.47263/JASEM.3(1)01
Mirowsky, J., & Ross, C. E. (2002). Measurement for a human science. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 43(2),152–170. https://doi.org/10.2307/3090194
Nair, T., & Appu, A. V. (2021). Social connectedness and psychological distress of elders during Covid-19. Indian Journal of Gerontology, 35(2), 200–212. http://www.gerontologyindia.com/pdf/vol35-2.pdf
National Institute of Mental Health. (2016). Older adults and depression: Learn the signs and find treatment. https://infocenter.nimh.nih.gov/pubstatic/19-MH-8080/19-MH-8080.pdf
National Institute of Ageing. (2019). Social isolation and loneliness in older people pose health risks. https://www.nia.nih.gov/news/social-isolation-loneliness-older-people-pose-health-risks
Nava-Quiroz, C. N., Bezies-Álvarez, R., & Vega-Valero, C. Z. (2014). Adaptación y validación de la escala de percepción de apoyo social de Vaux. Liberabit, 21(1), 49–58.
Nicasio, A. V., Cassisi, J. E., Negy, C., & Jentsch, F. (2019). Attitude–behavior discrepancy in familism and its relation to symptoms of depression among Latinos. Journal of Latinx Psychology, 7(2), 154–170. https://doi.org/10.1037/lat0000113
Nitschke, J. P., Forbes, P. A. G., Ali, N., Cutler, J., Apps, M. A. J., Lockwood, P. L., & Lamm, C. (2021). Resilience during uncertainty? Greater social connectedness during COVID‐19 lockdown is associated with reduced distress and fatigue. British Journal of Health Psychology, 26(2), 553–569. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12485
Pérez-Pedrogo, C., Francia-Martínez, M., & Martínez-Taboas, A. (2020). COVID-19 in Puerto Rico: Preliminary observations on social distancing and societal response toward a novel health stressor. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 12(5), 515–517. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000664
Ramírez-Ortiza, J., Castro-Quintero, D., Lerma-Córdoba, C., Yela-Ceballosa, F., & Escobar-Córdoba, F. (2020). Mental health consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic associated with social isolation. Colombian Journal of Anesthesiology, 48(4), 1–7.
https://doi.org/10.5554/22562087.e930
Reynolds, D. L., Garay, J. R., Deamond, S. L., Moran, M. K., Gold, W., & Styra, R. (2008). Understanding, compliance and psychological impact of the SARS quarantine experience. Epidemiology & Infection, 136(7), 997–1007. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0950268807009156
Ridner S. H. (2004). Psychological distress: Concept analysis. Journal of advanced Nursing, 45(5), 536–545. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2648.2003.02938.x
Sabogal, F., Marín, G., Otero-Sabogal, R., Marín, B. V., & Perez-Stable, E. J. (1987). Hispanic familism and acculturation: What changes and what doesn't? Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 9(4), 397–412. https://doi.org/10.1177/07399863870094003
Sandín, B., Valiente, R. M., García-Escalera, J., & Chorot, P. (2020). Impacto psicológico de la pandemia de COVID-19: Efectos negativos y positivos en población española asociados al periodo de confinamiento nacional. Revista de Psicopatología y Psicología Clínica, 25(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.5944/rppc.27569
Seppala, E., Rossomando, T., & Doty, J. R. (2013). Social connection and compassion: Important predictors of health and well-being. Social Research, 80(2), 53–78.
Shankar, A., McMunn, A., Banks, J., & Steptoe, A. (2011). Loneliness, social isolation, and behavioral and biological health indicators in older adults. Health psychology, 30(4), 377–385. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022826
Shankar, A., Bjorn-Rafnsson, S., & Steptoe, A. (2015). Longitudinal associations between social connections and subjective wellbeing in the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing. Psychology & Health, 30(6), 686–698. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2014.979823
Steptoe, A., Shankar, A., Demakakos, P., & Wardle, J. (2013). Social isolation, loneliness, and all-cause mortality in older men and women. PNAS, 110(15), 5797–5801. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1219686110
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2019). Risk and Protective Factors. https://www.samhsa.gov/sites/default/files/20190718-samhsa-risk-protective-factors.pdf
UHN Cardiovascular Prevention & Rehabilitation Program at the Toronto Rehabilitation Institute. (n.d.). Psychological Distress. Health e-University. https://www.healtheuniversity.ca/EN/CardiacCollege/Wellbeing/Stress_And_Sense_Of Control/Pages/psychological-distress.aspx
Wang, Y., Kala, M. P., & Jafar, T. H. (2020). Factors associated with psychological distress during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic on the predominantly general population: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE, 15(12), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0244630
World Health Organization. (2011). Social determinants of health. https://www.who.int/health-topics/social-determinants-of-health#tab=tab_1
World Health Organization. (2017a, February 3). Determinants of health. https://www.who.int/news-room/q-a-detail/determinants-of-health
World Health Organization. (2017b). Mental health of older adults. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs381/en/
World Health Organization. (2020). Coronavirus. https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus#tab=tab_1
Vaux, A., Phillips, J., Holly, L., Thomson, B., Williams, D., & Stewart, D. (1986). The social support appraisals (SS-A) scale: Studies of reliability and validity. American Journal of Community Psychology, 14(2), 195-218. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00911821
Zavaleta, D., Samuel, K., & Mills, C. T. (2017). Measures of social isolation. Social Indicators Research. 131(1), 367–391. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-016-1252-2
Cómo citar
The relationship between social connections and psychological distress during the COVID-19 pandemic. (2022). Revista Puertorriqueña De Psicologia, 32(2), 244-258. https://www.repsasppr.net/index.php/reps/article/view/697
Sección
Artículo de investigación
Si se acepta un trabajo para su publicación, los derechos de impresión y de reproducción por cualquier forma y medio son de la Asociación de Psicología de Puerto Rico (APPR), que no rechazará cualquier petición razonable por parte de los autores para obtener el permiso de reproducción de sus contribuciones. Debe adjuntarse una carta tipo de cesión de derechos. Se entiende que las opiniones expresadas en los artículos son de responsabilidad exclusiva de los autores y no comprometen la opinión y política científica de la Revista ni de la APPR. Igualmente, las actividades descritas en los trabajos publicados estarán de acuerdo con los criterios de ética, tanto por lo que se refiere a los trabajos con humanos como a la experimentación animal, así como en todo lo relativo a la ética profesional.
Cómo citar
The relationship between social connections and psychological distress during the COVID-19 pandemic. (2022). Revista Puertorriqueña De Psicologia, 32(2), 244-258. https://www.repsasppr.net/index.php/reps/article/view/697